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AUTISM FIRST STEPS
AUTISM DAILY NEWSLETTER    
Tuesday, November 20, 2001 

 

"Tips for Teaching Improving Academic Success for
Diverse-Language Learners"

By Sherille Sheppard from "Preventing School Failure"

Since the passage in 1997 of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which mandates that the general education curriculum must be available to students with special needs, and with the increased number of non-English speakers in the United States, general education teachers are faced with the dilemma of meeting the educational needs of diverse learners in their classrooms. The amount of information available regarding strategies that are effective with both types of students is limited. On examining the literature for teachers of students with learning disabilities and students learning English as a second language, however, one would that find that there are similarities in the approaches used with each strategy. In this article, I attempt to synthesize material and to discuss the similarities among four strategies that can be used with each type of learner.

A typical general education classroom is made up of students who have varying skill levels and different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Many general educators feel that they lack the knowledge and skills necessary to meet the needs of both students with disabilities and students who are learning English as a second language. The research by Maldona-do-Colon (1995) reported “one group of students whose unique needs present a challenge to educators is learners who are learning English as a second language (ESL)” (qtd. in Salend, Dorney, and Mazo, 1997, p. 54). At the same time, in research on teacher perception of main-streaming and inclusion by Scruggs and Mastropieri (1996), fewer than one third of teachers believed they had sufficient training, resources, skills, or time for including students with disabilities in their classrooms. Because of the nature of their disabilities (e.g., memory deficits, impulsivity, disorganization), many students need the structure supported by the use of rule reminders, specific feedback, and frequent firm-up review to learn successfully (King-Sears & Cummings, 1996). General educators feel that they lack training in effective teaching strategies as well as the language fluency that could help them meet the diverse needs of students in their classrooms.

Researchers have identified a number of teacher behaviors that are related positively and powerfully to the academic success of both general and special education students (Berliner, 1985; Green-wood, Arreaga-Mayer, & Carta, 1994). For example, effective teachers begin lessons with 5 to 8 minutes of review and provide reminders of lesson rules and procedures. Effective teachers also clearly define the goals and objectives of their instruction and the expected student out-comes while relating new learning to previous instruction and to students’ background experience (Lenz, Alley, & Schumaker, 1987; Rosenshine, 1985). They model target skills and strategies for students, provide a variety of exemplars, and allow for guided and independent practice (Englert, 1984). In addition, effective teachers use errors as opportunities to provide further instruction and to move students toward self-evaluation. Work provided to students during guided and independent practice reflects a mixture of questions using lower order and higher order thinking, and feedback is student- and situation-specific (Kline, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1991). When closely examined, the strategies and accommodations that can be used to meet the needs of students who are learning English as a second language are similar to and share components of strategies that can be used with students who have other learning-related difficulties.Several instructional strategies used successfully with ESL students can also be used to teach students with learning disabilities and ultimately create a more inclusive learning environment. To get a better understanding of the factors that contribute to academic problems, I first discuss the characteristics of students who are learning English as a second language and students with disabilities that affect academic achievement. Second, I describe the strategies that can be used by the general education teacher seeking to create an inclusive classroom. These strategies include (a) developing listener-friendly lectures, (b) adapting textbooks, (c) adapting assignments, and (d) providing opportunities for cooperative learning.CharacteristicsSecond-language learners often exhibit the problems associated with learning any new language, such as comprehension and articulation difficulties, limited vocabulary, and grammatical and syntactical errors in their writing and speaking. Too often, second-language learners are referred to and placed in special education settings, perhaps because if a child who is learning English as a second language has not achieved a particular level of language acquisition and proficiency, then the transmission of knowledge and information becomes difficult and, in turn, teaching and learning become challenging.Bos and Vaughn (1997) outline the behaviors manifested by students with learning problems. These behaviors include having difficulty (a) staying on task for extended periods of time, (b) completing assignments, and (c) remembering what they were taught. Bos and Vaughn also add that these students may have poor academic performance, poor language abilities, aggressive, withdrawn, or bizarre behavior. These difficulties can affect one or more academic areas. The following strategies can be used to ensure academic success for both students with learning problems and those learning English as a second language.Strategy 1. Developing listener-friendly lecturesRationale. A listener-friendly lecture is beneficial to students who are learning English as a second language and to students with learning disabilities when it incorporates simplified language; repetition, demonstration, or modeling; use of manipulatives and visual aids; and scaffolding (building on students’ prior knowledge). According to Bos and Vaughn (1997), listener-friendly lectures are easy to understand and follow, and they also help the listener to experience the content. Repetition helps to reinforce or clarify what is learned and allows students time to figure out what the instruction means (McCormick, Loeb, & Schiefelbusch, 1997). Demonstration or modeling, manipulatives, and visual aids help to make the lecture understandable by providing nonverbal context clues. Scaffolding is important so that the student can relate to the lecture. Students become stimulated and are more willing to participate in learning when they are able to relate to the lecture.Example. Each of the topics in an inclusive, general education, Language Arts–Social Studies class is organized into thematic units. At the beginning of the school year, the students are given a chart with the topics arranged in the form of a timeline to keep in their notebooks. The chart is also displayed in the class-room above the chalkboard. Each time a new topic is introduced, reference is made to the chart (or timeline). Before beginning each lecture, the students work independently, in pairs, or in groups, looking up vocabulary for the lesson in dictionaries. The vocabulary is listed on the board, and a worksheet with enlarged print is given to students who have difficulty with spatial relations and visual-motor integration. The teacher models reading and decoding each word while using a pointer on the overhead or black-board and points to each syllable in each word as he or she goes along. Students are required to repeat correct pronunciation of the words. To assess students’ background knowledge, the teacher asks the students to explain what they think each word means, where they heard the word, and how to use it in a sentence.Listed on the board along with the vocabulary are the lesson objective and five questions. The five questions contain the vocabulary words used in contextual statements, key words, and points from the lecture. The questions are designed to guide listening. The teacher instructs students to listen for key words and points out each question as it is answered in the lecture. To learn how to ask questions and interrupt appropriately during lectures, students are given red, yellow, and green circles to put on their desks. For example, when students do not understand something or need something repeated, they put the red circle on their desk to indicate to the teacher to stop or pause. The teacher scans the room to determine which student needs further clarification and support. When necessary, the teacher stops and then probes students to evaluate their level of understanding. Because the red circle may remain on the desk of students who have neither basic interpersonal communication (BICS) nor cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), these students’ individual communication goal would be to nod when they think they understand what is being taught. They should have the opportunity to quietly ask the paraprofessional or a peer for a translation. The teacher should ensure that additional visual prompts, such as concept maps and webs, are used to show relationships among ideas. Teachers should ask students to clarify points and use other objects to demonstrate lecture content. Finally, before moving from one key point to another, the teacher should stop, and ask and answer questions. The students should be directly instructed on what to write or copy down into their notebooks from the lecturesStrategy 2. Adapting textbooksRationale. Adapting textbooks can be an effective strategy for both English-language learners and students with disabilities. Bos and Vaughn (1997) suggest several strategies for adapting textbooks. These include (a) using audiotape to record content, (b) reading textbooks aloud to students, (c) pairing students to master textbook material, (d) structuring opportunities for students to activate prior knowledge before starting a reading assignment, (e) demonstrating or modeling effective reading strategies, (f) teaching students to use graphic aids and memory strategies to increase comprehension and improve retention of text information, and (g) using a multilevel, multimaterial approach (Bos & Vaughn). Using these strategies with students who are learning English as a second language and with students with disabilities increases their confidence and motivation by ensuring success and focusing less on their language capabilities and more on improving their reading fluency and comprehension skills. When accommodating these students, the teacher should take into account students’ experience as well as their language and reading abilities. Allowing students to choose books and materials that interest them is intrinsically rewarding.Example. When presenting new content information from the textbook, the teacher plans the adaptations that should be made for the various levels of reading and comprehension skills in the class-room. During planning, the teacher outlines the chapter, highlighting the key points. The students are provided with this outline on a worksheet in enlarged print and with a limited amount of visual stimuli. The outline is reviewed with the students by the teacher, who uses a transparency on the overhead screen and points to each important idea as he or she goes over it. The teacher reads the textbook aloud into a tape recorder so that the students can read along with the text at a listening center during independent activities or for homework. At this time, the teacher also constructs pictures and diagrams as well as deciding if role-playing activities would be necessary to reinforce comprehension. The teacher, or the students in cooperative learning groups, can write short scripts to illustrate important concepts from the chapter. Before beginning the chapter, students are given opportunities to examine each heading, to discuss what they know already, and to make predictions about the chapter orally or in their notebooks. To supplement the text reading, the teacher should provide additional books, videotapes, or interactive CDs, such as “Word Attack,” “Where in the World is Carmen San Diego?” or “Oregon Trail II.” The teacher should try to ensure that elements of the students’ culture and life experiences are included in the materials so that the students can relate to it.Strategy 3. Adapting class assignments and homeworkRationale. Adapting assignments is an accommodation that general education teachers can use as a strategy that will benefit both English-language learners and students with learning disabilities. Special learners can experience success without undue attention being brought to their learning difficulties. The key to success is to make an assignment more appropriate in content length, in time required to complete it, and in skill level needed to accomplish the task. It is important to explain the assignments, model several problems if appropriate, and check for understanding (Sawyer, Nelson, Jayanthi, Bursuck, & Epstein, 1996). Bos and Vaughn (1997) add that “[the teacher] needs to let students know why the assignment is important, when it is due, what support they will have for completing the task, and steps necessary for getting the job done.” Having the complete information helps to motivate the students. The more information that a student has about a task increases understanding and ensures the likelihood of task completion.Example. The activities that the teacher assigns should reinforce skills and allow opportunities for students to apply what they learned from the lecture or reading. In-class assignments should relate to learning new vocabulary, comprehending the reading, expanding their knowledge, and using study strategies. The in-class assignments could include having the students make their own illustrated dictionaries, write or discuss answers to comprehension questions, or create maps or dioramas. When the teacher is not lecturing, he or she should be circulating throughout the classroom offering feedback, assistance, and suggestions. Students should be given clear, simple, step-by-step written and verbal instructions prior to beginning any task. They should also have opportunities to ask for repetition of directions or clarification of questions. In addition, students are shown a breakdown of the time and materials required to complete each task. Finally, the students should be encouraged to ask for assistance when they notice that they are spending too much time on a task so that they learn to monitor themselves.Strategy 4. Classwide peer tutoringRationale. Classwide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) is a structured technique for improving students’ reading abilities; it can also be used to support language development. Students of different reading levels are paired (e.g., a high or average reader with a low reader) and work together on a sequence of organized activities such as oral reading, story-telling, and summarization (Bos & Vaughn, 1997). The benefits of CWPT include (a) an increase in the amount of time spent on task and reducing acting-out behaviors, (b) additional fluency in basic skills through further opportunities to practice, and (c) a higher rate of correct responses for students, who receive frequent feedback about their academic performance (King-Sears & Cummings, 1996). CWPT can also be reinforcing because it not only provides students of varying skill levels with alternate roles and opportunities to interact with each other but also gives students a chance to work at their instructional level. Successful task completion depends on the contribution of each group member.Bos and Vaughn (1997) suggest “pairing and grouping native speakers together” as an effective strategy for English-language learners to develop proficiency in their first language while supporting second-language learning and to observe appropriate language usage (p.103). Cooperative learning experiences are also effective for students with learning problems. CWPT provides context for students to receive social-skills instruction, to practice social skills, and to be rewarded for demonstrating appropriate social interactions (King-Sears & Cummings, 1996). “Providing opportunities to participate in cooperative learning experiences is particularly important for students in developing social skills as well as the targeted academic skill” (Bos & Vaughn, p. 450).Example. After receiving directions for completion of class assignments the students are instructed to form cooperative-learning groups. The students are reminded of the rules of conduct for group participation. The groups are made up of students of varying skill levels. The students quickly decide what roles and responsibility each group member will have in completion of the task. All members are expected to participate in activities to the maximum extent of their capabilities. The best reader in the group may be responsible for explaining or demonstrating what was read. One or two students may be responsible for researching and copying information. Students with strengths in art may be responsible for illustrating and collecting photographs. Other students may be responsible for obtaining supplies and performing house-keeping duties. When the assignment is to complete a worksheet or to study vocabulary, the worksheets are divided by section, by number of items, and by skills required for completion so that the students in the group or pair support each other throughout the assignment. One student in the pair may be responsible for the reading and writing if the other student has deficits in that area; however, the student with special needs would still have to verbalize or illustrate ideas as well as copy the written work. Students use direct instruction or practice mnemonic strategies to study vocabulary with a partner. The teacher circulates around the classroom, providing individual instruction, feedback, and support to each group. At the end of each group activity, students present their work to the class as a whole group. Then students as well as teachers evaluate their performance and administer points for cooperation and participation in each group.ConclusionAlthough meeting the needs of a diverse population of students is a challenge for general educators today, it is not an impossible task. The classroom teacher has to be reflective and flexible as well as willing to make accommodations to meet the needs of all students. The four instructional strategies discussed in this article can be used in the general education classroom and will benefit all students. These strategies include providing lectures that are simplified, appealing, and multisensory; adapting textbooks and assignments; evaluating their appropriateness and using supplementary materials; and, finally, providing opportunities for cooperative learning. The benefits of these strategies for both English-language learners and students with disabilities include increased attention, retention of information, participation, and task completion. All these benefits eventually lead to improvement in reading abilities and language skills and, ultimately, to academic success.Sherille Sheppard
South Ozone Park, New YorkREFERENCESBerliner, D. C. (1985). Effective classroom teaching: The necessary but not sufficient condition for developing exemplary schools. In G. R. Austin & H. Garber (Eds.), Research on exemplary schools (pp. 127–154). New York: Academic Press.Bos, C. S., & Vaughn, S. (1998). Strategies for teaching students with learning and behavior problems (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Englert, C. S. (1984). Effective direct instruction practices in special education settings. Remedial and Special Education, 5(2), 38–47.Fletcher, T. V., Bos, C. S., & Johnson, L. M. (1999). Accommodating English Language Learners with language and learning disabilities in bilingual education classrooms. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 14(2), 80–91.Greenwood, C. R., Arreaga-Mayer, C., & Carta, J. J. (1994). Identification and translation of effective teacher-developed instructional procedures for general practice. Remedial and Special Education, 15, 140–151.King-Sears, M. A., & Cummings, C. S. (1996). Inclusive practices of classroom teachers. Remedial and Special Education, 17(4), 217–225.Kline, F. M., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1991). The development and validation of feedback routines for instructing students with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 191–207.Lenz, B. K., Alley, G. R., & Schumaker, J. B. (1987). Activating the inactive learner: Advance organizers in the secondary content classroom. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 53–67.Maldonado-Colon, E. (1995, April). Second-language learners in special education: Language framework for inclusive classrooms. Paper presented at the International Meeting of the Council for Exceptional Children, Indianapolis, IN.McCormick, L., Loeb, D. F., & Schiefelbusch, R. L. (1997). Supporting children with culturally diverse backgrounds and communication difficulties in inclusive settings: School based language intervention (pp. 376–391). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services. (1997). IDEA ’97: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.Rosenshine, B. V. (1985). Teaching functions in instructional programs. The Elementary School Journal, 83, 335–352.Salend, S. J., Dorney, J. A., & Mazo, M. (1997). The roles of bilingual special educators in creating inclusive classrooms. Remedial and Special Education. 18(1), 54–64.Sawyer, V., Nelson, J. S., Jayanthi, M., Bursuck, W., & Epstein, M. H. (1996). Views of students with learning disabilities of their homework in general education classes: Student interviews. Learning Disability Quarterly, 19, 70–85.Scruggs, T. E., & Mastropieri, M. A. (1996). Teacher perception of mainstreaming/inclusion, 1958–1995: A research synthesis. Exceptional Children, 63, 59–74.
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A Consumer Guide to Handling Disputes with Your Private or Employer Health Plan

November 2001

A growing number of people get their health care through some form of managed care plan - a health maintenance organization, preferred provider organization, or point-of-service option. Most of the time, people receive the care they need, but the potential exists for disagreements over the services that will be provided by managed care plans to the people they cover.

Health plans are required to establish rules and procedures for handling their enrollee's complaints and grievances inside the health plan, known as an "internal review." Many states have legislated additional procedures outside of the health plan, called "external reviews" or "independent reviews," to provide an unbiased way to resolve disputes between patients and their health plans. An external review is a reconsideration of a health plan's denial of service, with the review conducted by a person or panel of individuals who are not part of the plan. As of July 2001, 40 states plus the District of Columbia had legislated such procedures.

Anyone enrolled in a managed health care plan should be familiar with their plan's internal review process and any external review program in their state in case problems later arise. This guide will help you navigate your private or employer health plan's internal grievance procedure, as well as any external review program your state may have. The guide is not generally applicable, however, for resolving disputes if you have Medicare or Medicaid coverage.
http://www.kff.org/consumerguide/
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ALL INFORMATION, DATA, AND MATERIAL CONTAINED, PRESENTED, OR PROVIDED HERE IS FOR GENERAL INFORMATION PURPOSES ONLY AND IS NOT TO BE CONSTRUED AS REFLECTING THE KNOWLEDGE OR OPINIONS OF THE PUBLISHER, AND IS NOT TO BE CONSTRUED OR INTENDED AS PROVIDING MEDICAL OR LEGAL ADVICE.  THE DECISION WHETHER OR NOT TO VACCINATE IS AN IMPORTANT AND COMPLEX ISSUE AND SHOULD BE MADE BY YOU, AND YOU ALONE, IN CONSULTATION WITH YOUR HEALTH CARE PROVIDER.