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New insights on autism
Jan. 8, 2003
Studies indicate that the number of diagnosed cases of Autism, or autistic
spectrum disorder, is increasing with around 0.6% of the population affected.
Early infantile autism was first described almost 60 years ago and autism has
been the subject of intense research activities ever since, however the origin
of the condition is still not understood. This review issue of Philosophical
Transactions B, a Royal Society publication, provides a comprehensive overview
of the latest research on autism and highlights some new techniques that will
progress future understanding.
"All the papers in this review present something new: either new techniques that
will yield positive results for future studies or consolidation of current
knowledge that will enable the subject to move on," says Prof. Uta Frith of
University College London, coeditor of the issue with her colleague Dr.
Elisabeth Hill.
New studies of the brain
The study of brain development in autism is new and facts are emerging which
challenge older theories. One of the more established ideas is that damage in
the amygdala, part of the social brain, is central to the disorder. Salmond et
al have found in their structural anatomical studies using magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) that only half of the cases they examined had amygdala damage. MRI
images were analysed using individual voxel-based morphometry - a technique that
allows comparison of aspects of brain structure independent of brain size by
assessing the density of grey and white matter in the brain. Other structures in
the brain, including the orbitofrontal cortex, cerebellum and superior temporal
gyrus, were more consistently associated with autism leading to the hope that
this new technique will prove to be an invaluable research tool in the future.
Supporting behavioural studies using the startle response, thought to reflect
amygdala function, showed no difference between the study and a control group.
The fusiform face area of the brain is involved in the processing and
discrimination of faces. Schultz et al use MRI techniques to show that it is
also engaged in general social processing and is part of a set of
well-established brain regions (including the amygdala) specific to social
cognition. Their main finding is that the extent of brain activity in the
fusiform face region is related to the accuracy with which social tasks are
performed.
Puzzling condition
The signs and symptoms of autism are still puzzling. Since a biological basis of
autism was accepted, approaches from developmental cognitive neuroscience have
been applied to further our understanding of the autism spectrum. One of the
puzzles presented by 'autism' is that the communication issues common to all
patients can coexist with high intelligence, for example Asperger syndrome.
Asperger Syndrome has readily established itself as a household name but its
diagnosis is still controversial. Hippler and Klicpera revisited the original
records from Asperger's clinic and thus provide a unique documentation of the
historical origins of the condition.
The huge variety of the autism spectrum makes sub-grouping based on behaviour
and neurological causes attractive. Tager-Flusberg and Joseph have used new
sensitive neuropsychological techniques to establish such subgroups. In
particular groups can be identified by large discrepancies between verbal and
non-verbal IQ. In cases with good verbal IQ autism tended to be milder, whereas
cases with good non-verbal IQ showed more severe autism and were also
characterised by larger head size. Larger head size in autism is a recent
finding and correlates with brain size and weight, indicating potential
physiological differences between subgroups.
Two papers by Charman and Swettenham respectively investigate a particularly
early and striking symptom of autism namely lack of joint attention. This
symptom proves highly predictive of later social impairment, but is not due to
an absence of the normal 'reflex' to follow eye gaze. Hobson and Bishop studied
the social interactions of congenitally blind children and relate them to
features in autistic children.
Klin et al have used a new 'eye-tracking' technique to investigate how autistic
individuals extract meaning from normal social scenes and showed that their
viewing patterns are dramatically different from normal.
Three theories
Three main neuro-cognitive theories of autism have emerged over the recent past
- theory of mind deficit, weak central coherence, and executive dysfunction -
with such cognitive explanations of the core features of autism providing a
vital interface between brain and behaviour.
Baron-Cohen et al analyse groups of adults by means of questionnaires and derive
two quotients: Systemising and Empathising. Successful social interaction
requires a need to empathise and this is contrasted by the ability to systemise
- a drive to analyse and construct systems. Results show a distinct male /
female difference (males favour systemising; females prefer empathising) but
also that individuals with autism show an unusually strong drive to systemise.
The preoccupation with detail and an inability to "see the wood for the trees"
lies at the heart of the weak central coherence theory. Work by Plaisted et al
develops this theory and shows new dissociations between the components of
perceptual processing in autism.
Booth et al look at a possible link between weak central coherence and executive
dysfunction by comparing boys with autism to boys affected by attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using drawing tasks. Both groups show planning
impairment but only the autistic boys show a detail-focussed drawing style.
Individuals with autism show problems with motor coordination. The extent of
such difficulties in the autistic population is not known, but the work by Mari
et al indicates differences in movement planning and execution for autistic
children. The observed movement abnormalities, which show striking parallels
with Parkinsonism, provide evidence that they may play an intrinsic role in
abnormal neurophysiological processes in at least a subgroup of individuals with
autism.
Window on the mind
Autism is a neuro-developmental disorder that allows a unique window on the
relationship between mind and brain. Autism is characterised by impaired social
interaction and communication as well as repetitive behaviours and restricted
interests. The consequences of this disorder for everyday life adaptation are
extremely variable.
"New ideas are coming forward that link mental dysfunctions with brain
abnormalities, many being facilitated by the use of new techniques," concludes
Prof. Frith. "We now know more about the brain basis of autism and the nature
and variability of its behavioural symptoms. We are more aware of early signs of
autism and the persistent difficulties experienced by well-compensated adults.
And we are starting to seriously recognise and examine the unique cognitive
strengths of many individuals with autism."
The Royal Society
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